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<title>Acinetobacter</title>

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Acinetobacter

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Acinetobacter

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<td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Acinetobacter baumannii

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)"><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a>

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<td>Domain:

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<td><a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>

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<td>Kingdom:

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<td><a href="Pseudomonadati" title="Pseudomonadati">Pseudomonadati</a>

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<td>Phylum:

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<td><a href="Pseudomonadota" title="Pseudomonadota">Pseudomonadota</a>

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<td>Class:

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<td><a href="Gammaproteobacteria" title="Gammaproteobacteria">Gammaproteobacteria</a>

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<td>Order:

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<td><a href="Pseudomonadales" title="Pseudomonadales">Pseudomonadales</a>

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<td>Family:

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<td><a href="Moraxellaceae" title="Moraxellaceae">Moraxellaceae</a>

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<td>Genus:

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<td> Brisou & Prévot 1954

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<th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(220,235,245)">Species

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<a href="Acinetobacter_albensis" title="Acinetobacter albensis">Acinetobacter albensis</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_apis" title="Acinetobacter apis">Acinetobacter apis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_baumannii" title="Acinetobacter baumannii">Acinetobacter baumannii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_baylyi" title="Acinetobacter baylyi">Acinetobacter baylyi</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_beijerinckii" title="Acinetobacter beijerinckii">Acinetobacter beijerinckii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_bereziniae" title="Acinetobacter bereziniae">Acinetobacter bereziniae</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_bohemicus" title="Acinetobacter bohemicus">Acinetobacter bohemicus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_boissieri" title="Acinetobacter boissieri">Acinetobacter boissieri</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_bouvetii" title="Acinetobacter bouvetii">Acinetobacter bouvetii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_brisouii" title="Acinetobacter brisouii">Acinetobacter brisouii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_calcoaceticus" title="Acinetobacter calcoaceticus">Acinetobacter calcoaceticus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_celticus" title="Acinetobacter celticus">Acinetobacter celticus</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_chengduensis" title="Acinetobacter chengduensis">Acinetobacter chengduensis</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_colistiniresistens" title="Acinetobacter colistiniresistens">Acinetobacter colistiniresistens</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_courvalinii" title="Acinetobacter courvalinii">Acinetobacter courvalinii</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_cumulans" title="Acinetobacter cumulans">Acinetobacter cumulans</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_defluvii" title="Acinetobacter defluvii">Acinetobacter defluvii</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_dispersus" title="Acinetobacter dispersus">Acinetobacter dispersus</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_dijkshoorniae" title="Acinetobacter dijkshoorniae">Acinetobacter dijkshoorniae</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_equi" title="Acinetobacter equi">Acinetobacter equi</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_gandensis" title="Acinetobacter gandensis">Acinetobacter gandensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_gerneri" title="Acinetobacter gerneri">Acinetobacter gerneri</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_guangdongensis" title="Acinetobacter guangdongensis">Acinetobacter guangdongensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_guerrae" title="Acinetobacter guerrae">Acinetobacter guerrae</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_guillouiae" title="Acinetobacter guillouiae">Acinetobacter guillouiae</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_gyllenbergii" title="Acinetobacter gyllenbergii">Acinetobacter gyllenbergii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_haemolyticus" title="Acinetobacter haemolyticus">Acinetobacter haemolyticus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_harbinensis" title="Acinetobacter harbinensis">Acinetobacter harbinensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_indicus" title="Acinetobacter indicus">Acinetobacter indicus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_junii" title="Acinetobacter junii">Acinetobacter junii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_kookii" title="Acinetobacter kookii">Acinetobacter kookii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_lactucae" title="Acinetobacter lactucae">Acinetobacter lactucae</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_lanii" title="Acinetobacter lanii">Acinetobacter lanii</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_larvae" title="Acinetobacter larvae">Acinetobacter larvae</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_lwoffii" title="Acinetobacter lwoffii">Acinetobacter lwoffii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_modestus" title="Acinetobacter modestus">Acinetobacter modestus</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_nectaris" title="Acinetobacter nectaris">Acinetobacter nectaris</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_nosocomialis" title="Acinetobacter nosocomialis">Acinetobacter nosocomialis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_oryzae" title="Acinetobacter oryzae">Acinetobacter oryzae</a><a href="#cite_note-oryzae-refs-6">[6]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_parvus" title="Acinetobacter parvus">Acinetobacter parvus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_pakistanensis" title="Acinetobacter pakistanensis">Acinetobacter pakistanensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_populi" title="Acinetobacter populi">Acinetobacter populi</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_portensis" title="Acinetobacter portensis">Acinetobacter portensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_proteolyticus" title="Acinetobacter proteolyticus">Acinetobacter proteolyticus</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_pittii" title="Acinetobacter pittii">Acinetobacter pittii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_piscicola" title="Acinetobacter piscicola">Acinetobacter piscicola</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_pragensis" title="Acinetobacter pragensis">Acinetobacter pragensis</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_proteolyticus" title="Acinetobacter proteolyticus">Acinetobacter proteolyticus</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_pseudolwoffii" title="Acinetobacter pseudolwoffii">Acinetobacter pseudolwoffii</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

Acinetobacter pullicarnis<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

Acinetobacter pullorum<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_puyangensis" title="Acinetobacter puyangensis">Acinetobacter puyangensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_qingfengensis" title="Acinetobacter qingfengensis">Acinetobacter qingfengensis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_radioresistens" title="Acinetobacter radioresistens">Acinetobacter radioresistens</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_rudis" title="Acinetobacter rudis">Acinetobacter rudis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_schindleri" title="Acinetobacter schindleri">Acinetobacter schindleri</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_seifertii" title="Acinetobacter seifertii">Acinetobacter seifertii</a>

Acinetobacter shaoyimingii<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_soli" title="Acinetobacter soli">Acinetobacter soli</a>

Acinetobacter stercoris<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_tandoii" title="Acinetobacter tandoii">Acinetobacter tandoii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_tjernbergiae" title="Acinetobacter tjernbergiae">Acinetobacter tjernbergiae</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_towneri" title="Acinetobacter towneri">Acinetobacter towneri</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_ursingii" title="Acinetobacter ursingii">Acinetobacter ursingii</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_variabilis" title="Acinetobacter variabilis">Acinetobacter variabilis</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_venetianus" title="Acinetobacter venetianus">Acinetobacter venetianus</a>

<a href="Acinetobacter_vivianii" title="Acinetobacter vivianii">Acinetobacter vivianii</a><a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

Acinetobacter wanghuae<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

Acinetobacter wuhouensis<a href="#cite_note-Acinetobacter-1">[1]</a>

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Acinetobacter is a <a href="Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> of <a href="Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> bacteria belonging to the wider class of <a href="Gammaproteobacteria" title="Gammaproteobacteria">Gammaproteobacteria</a>. Acinetobacter species are <a href="Oxidase_test" title="Oxidase test">oxidase-negative</a>, exhibit <a href="Twitching_motility" title="Twitching motility">twitching motility</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> and occur in pairs under magnification.

They are important <a href="Soil_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil life">soil organisms</a>, where they contribute to the <a href="Mineralization_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralization (soil)">mineralization</a> of, for example, <a href="Aromaticity" title="Aromaticity">aromatic compounds</a>. Acinetobacter species are a key source of infection in debilitated patients in the hospital, in particular the species <a href="Acinetobacter_baumannii" title="Acinetobacter baumannii">Acinetobacter baumannii</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div>

Species of the genus Acinetobacter are <a href="Aerobic_organism" title="Aerobic organism">strictly aerobic</a>, <a href="Fermentation_(biochemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fermentation (biochemistry)">nonfermentative</a>, <a href="Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">Gram-negative</a> <a href="Bacteria#Morphology" title="Bacteria">bacilli</a>. They show mostly a <a href="Coccobacillus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccobacillus">coccobacillary</a> morphology on nonselective agar. Rods predominate in fluid media, especially during early growth.

The morphology of Acinetobacter species can be quite variable in Gram-stained human clinical specimens, and cannot be used to differentiate Acinetobacter from other common causes of infection.

Most strains of Acinetobacter, except some of the A. lwoffii strain, grow well on <a href="MacConkey_agar" title="MacConkey agar">MacConkey agar</a> (without salt). Although officially classified as not lactose-fermenting, they are often partially lactose-fermenting when grown on MacConkey agar. They are <a href="Oxidase" title="Oxidase">oxidase</a>-negative, catalase-positive, indole-negative, <a href="Motility" title="Motility">nonmotile</a>, and usually <a href="Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a>-negative.

Bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter are known to form intracellular inclusions of <a href="Polyhydroxyalkanoates" title="Polyhydroxyalkanoates">polyhydroxyalkanoates</a> under certain environmental conditions (e.g. lack of elements such as phosphorus, nitrogen, or oxygen combined with an excessive supply of carbon sources).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

Acinetobacter is a compound word from scientific Greek [α + κίνητο + βακτηρ(ία)], meaning nonmotile rod. The first element acineto- appears as a somewhat <a href="Baroque" title="Baroque">baroque</a> rendering of the Greek <a href="Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> ακίνητο-, commonly <a href="Transliteration" title="Transliteration">transliterated</a> in English is akineto-, but actually stems from the French cinetique and was adopted directly into English. Nevertheless, the French word also originates from the Greek privative α + κίνησις (motion) confirming the same origin from a different path.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomy">Taxonomy</h2></div>

The genus Acinetobacter comprises 38 validly named species.<a href="#cite_note-Visca2011-8">[8]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification">Identification</h2></div>

Identification of Acinetobacter species is complicated by lack of standard identification techniques. Initially, identification was based on phenotypic characteristics such as growth temperature, <a href="Colony_morphology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colony morphology">colony morphology</a>, growth medium, carbon sources, gelatin hydrolysis, glucose fermentation, among others. This method allowed identification of A. calcoaceticus–A. baumannii complex by the formation of smooth, rounded, mucoid colonies at 37 °C. Closely related species could not be differentiated and individual species such as A. baumannii and Acinetobacter genomic species 3 could not be positively identified phenotypically.

Because routine identification in the clinical microbiology laboratory is not yet possible, Acinetobacter isolates are divided and grouped into three main complexes:

<ul><li>Acinetobacter calcoaceticus-baumannii complex: glucose-oxidising nonhemolytic (A. baumannii can be identified by OXA-51 typing)</li>

<li>Acinetobacter lwoffii: glucose-negative nonhemolytic</li>

<li>Acinetobacter haemolyticus: <a href="Hemolysis_(microbiology)" title="Hemolysis (microbiology)">hemolytic</a></li></ul>

Different species of bacteria in this genus can be identified using fluorescence-lactose-denitrification to find the amount of acid produced by <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> of <a href="Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>. The other reliable identification test at genus level is chromosomal DNA transformation assay. In this assay, a naturally competent tryptophan <a href="Auxotrophic" class="mw-redirect" title="Auxotrophic">auxotrophic</a> mutant of Acinetobacter baylyi (BD4 trpE27) is transformed with the total DNA of a putative Acinetobacter isolate and the transformation mixture is plated on a brain heart infusion agar. The growth is then harvested after incubation for 24 h at 30 °C, plating on an Acinetobacter minimal agar (AMA), and incubating at 30 °C for 108 h. Growth on the AMA indicates a positive transformation assay and confirms the isolate as a member of the genus Acinetobacter. E. coli HB101 and A. calcoaceticus MTCC1921T can be used as the negative and positive controls, respectively.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

Some of the molecular methods used in species identification are repetitive extragenic palindromic sequence-based PCR, ribotyping, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), random amplified polymorphic DNA, amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP), restriction and sequence analysis of tRNA and 16S-23S rRNA gene spacers and amplified 16S ribosomal DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA). PFGE, AFLP, and ARDRA are validated common methods in use today because of their discriminative ability. However, most recent methods include multilocus sequence typing and multilocus PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry, which are based on amplification of highly conserved housekeeping genes and can be used to study the genetic relatedness between different isolates.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Habitat">Habitat</h2></div>

Acinetobacter species are widely distributed in nature, and commonly occur in <a href="Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> and water.<a href="#cite_note-Doughari2011-11">[11]</a> Their ability to survive on moist and dry surfaces, as well as to survive exposure to various common disinfectants, allows some Acinetobacter species to survive in a hospital environment.<a href="#cite_note-Doughari2011-11">[11]</a> Furthermore, Acinetobacter species can grow at a broad range of temperatures, allowing them to survive in a broad array of environments.<a href="#cite_note-Doughari2011-11">[11]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Clinical_significance">Clinical significance</h2></div>

Acinetobacter is frequently isolated in <a href="Nosocomial_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Nosocomial infection">nosocomial infections</a>, and is especially prevalent in <a href="Intensive_care_unit" title="Intensive care unit">intensive care units</a>, where both sporadic cases and <a href="Epidemic" title="Epidemic">epidemic</a> and <a href="Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> occurrences are common. A. baumannii is a frequent cause of <a href="Pneumonia#Hospital-acquired" title="Pneumonia">hospital-acquired pneumonia</a>, especially of late-onset, <a href="Ventilator-associated_pneumonia" title="Ventilator-associated pneumonia">ventilator-associated pneumonia</a>. It can cause various other infections, including skin and wound infections, <a href="Bacteremia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteremia">bacteremia</a>, and <a href="Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a>, but A. lwoffi is mostly responsible for the latter.

Of the Acinetobacter, A. baumannii is the greatest cause of human disease, having been implicated in a number of hospital-acquired infections such as bacteremia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), secondary meningitis, infective endocarditis, and wound and burn infections.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In particular, A. baumannii is frequently isolated as the cause of hospital-acquired pneumonia among patients admitted to the <a href="Intensive_care_unit" title="Intensive care unit">intensive care unit</a>. Risk factors include long-term intubation and tracheal or lung aspiration. In most cases of ventilator-associated pneumonia, the equipment used for artificial ventilation such as endotracheal tubes or bronchoscopes serve as the source of infection and result in the colonization of the lower respiratory tract by A. baumannii. In some cases, the bacteria can go on to enter the bloodstream, resulting in bacteremia with mortality rates ranging from 32% to 52%. UTIs caused by A. baumannii appear to be associated with continuous catheterization, as well as antibiotic therapy. A. baumannii has also been reported to infect skin and soft tissue in traumatic injuries and postsurgical wounds. A. baumannii commonly infect burns and may result in complications owing to difficulty in treatment and eradication. Though less common, some evidence also links this bacterium to meningitis, most often following invasive surgery, and, in very rare cases, to community-acquired primary meningitis wherein the majority of the victims were children.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Case reports also link A. baumannii to endocarditis, keratitis, peritonitis, and very rarely fatal neonatal sepsis.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a>

The clinical significance of A. baumannii is partially due to its capacity to develop resistance against many available antibiotics. Reports indicate that it possesses resistance against broad-spectrum <a href="Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a>, <a href="%CE%92-lactam_antibiotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactam antibiotic">β-lactam antibiotics</a>, <a href="Aminoglycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Aminoglycosides">aminoglycosides</a>, and <a href="Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">quinolones</a>. Resistance to <a href="Carbapenem" title="Carbapenem">carbapenems</a> is also being increasingly reported.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> A. baumannii can survive on the human skin or dry surfaces for weeks and is resistant to a variety of disinfectants, making it particularly easy to spread in a hospital setting.<a href="#cite_note-Peleg2008-17">[17]</a> Antibiotic resistance genes are often plasmid-borne, and plasmids present in Acinetobacter strains can be transferred to other pathogenic bacteria by <a href="Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>.

In healthy individuals, Acinetobacter colonies on the skin correlate with low incidence of <a href="Allergies" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergies">allergies</a>;<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Acinetobacter is thought to be allergy-protective.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treatment">Treatment</h2></div>

Acinetobacter species are innately resistant to many classes of antibiotics, including <a href="Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, <a href="Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">chloramphenicol</a>, and often <a href="Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycosides</a>. Resistance to <a href="Fluoroquinolones" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluoroquinolones">fluoroquinolones</a> has been reported during therapy, which has also resulted in increased resistance to other drug classes mediated through active drug <a href="Efflux_(microbiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Efflux (microbiology)">efflux</a>. A dramatic increase in <a href="Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> in Acinetobacter strains has been reported by the <a href="Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC), and the carbapenems are recognised as the gold-standard and treatment of last resort.<a href="#cite_note-Rahal_2006-20">[20]</a> Acinetobacter species are unusual in that they are sensitive to <a href="Sulbactam" title="Sulbactam">sulbactam</a>, which is commonly used to inhibit bacterial beta-lactamase, but this is an example of the antibacterial property of sulbactam itself.<a href="#cite_note-Wood2002-21">[21]</a> Recently sulbactam-durlobactam, a new antibacterial combination undergoing phase 3 trial, has demonstrated good in vitro activity also against carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii isolates (92% susceptibility).<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

In November 2004, the CDC reported an increasing number of A. baumannii bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the <a href="Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>/<a href="Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a> region during <a href="Operation_Iraqi_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Iraqi Freedom">Operation Iraqi Freedom</a> and in <a href="Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> during <a href="Operation_Enduring_Freedom" title="Operation Enduring Freedom">Operation Enduring Freedom</a> were treated.<a href="#cite_note-MMWR_2004-23">[23]</a> Most of these were multidrug-resistant. Among one set of isolates from <a href="Walter_Reed_Army_Medical_Center" title="Walter Reed Army Medical Center">Walter Reed Army Medical Center</a>, 13 (35%) were susceptible to <a href="Imipenem" title="Imipenem">imipenem</a> only, and two (4%) were resistant to all drugs tested. One antimicrobial agent, <a href="Colistin" title="Colistin">colistin</a> (polymyxin E), has been used to treat infections with multidrug-resistant A. baumannii; however, antimicrobial susceptibility testing for colistin was not performed on isolates described in this report. Because A. baumannii can survive on dry surfaces up to 20 days, they pose a high risk of spread and contamination in hospitals, potentially putting immunocompromised and other patients at risk for drug-resistant infections that are often fatal and, in general, expensive to treat. Trials to implement vaccines to prevent Acinetobacter infections were documented.<a href="#cite_note-Ahmad2016-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tawfik2017-25">[25]</a>

Reports suggest this bacterium is susceptible to <a href="Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">phage therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Matsuzaki2005-26">[26]</a>

Gene-silencing antisense oligomers in a form called peptide-conjugated phosphorodiamidate <a href="Morpholino" title="Morpholino">morpholino</a> oligomers have also been reported to inhibit growth in tests carried out in animals infected with antibiotic-resistant A. baumannii.<a href="#cite_note-Geller_2013-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-OSU_News-28">[28]</a>

<a href="Sulbactam/durlobactam" title="Sulbactam/durlobactam">Sulbactam/durlobactam</a> (Xacduro) was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2023.<a href="#cite_note-FDA_PR_20230523-29">[29]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aseptic_technique">Aseptic technique</h2></div>

The frequency of <a href="Nosocomial_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Nosocomial infection">nosocomial infections</a> in British hospitals prompted the <a href="National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> to research the effectiveness of anions for air purification, finding that repeated airborne Acinetobacter infections in a ward were eliminated by the installation of a negative <a href="Air_ioniser" title="Air ioniser">air ioniser</a>—the infection rate fell to zero.<a href="#cite_note-scientist-30">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Natural_transformation">Natural transformation</h2></div>

Bacterial transformation involves the transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient bacterium through the intervening liquid medium. Recipient bacteria must first enter a special physiological state termed <a href="Natural_competence" title="Natural competence">competence</a> to receive donor DNA. A. calcoaceticus is induced to become competent for natural transformation by dilution of a stationary culture into fresh nutrient medium.<a href="#cite_note-Palmen-31">[31]</a> Competence is gradually lost during prolonged exponential growth and for a period after entrance into the stationary state. The DNA taken up may be used to repair DNA damage or as a means to exchange genetic information by horizontal gene transfer.<a href="#cite_note-Palmen-31">[31]</a> Natural transformation in A. calcoaceticus may protect against exposure to DNA-damaging conditions in the natural environment of these bacteria, as appears to be the case for other bacterial species capable of transformation.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-MMWR_2004-23"><a href="#cite_ref-MMWR_2004_23-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCenters_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention2004" class="citation journal cs1">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2004). "Acinetobacter baumannii infections among patients at military medical facilities treating injured U.S. service members, 2002-2004". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 53 (45): 1063–6. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15549020">15549020</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Ahmad2016-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Ahmad2016_24-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAhmadTawfikSheweitaHaroun2016" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmad TA, Tawfik DM, Sheweita SA, Haroun M, El-Sayed LH (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.trivac.2016.03.001">"Development of immunization trials against Acinetobacter baumannii"</a>. Trials in Vaccinology. 5: 53–60. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.trivac.2016.03.001">10.1016/j.trivac.2016.03.001</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Tawfik2017-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Tawfik2017_25-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTawfikAhmadTASheweitaHaroun2017" class="citation journal cs1">Tawfik DM, AhmadTA, Sheweita SA, Haroun M, El-Sayed LH (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165247817300901">"The detection of antigenic determinants of Acinetobacter baumannii"</a>. Immunology Letters. 186: 59–67. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.imlet.2017.04.004">10.1016/j.imlet.2017.04.004</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28427887">28427887</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Matsuzaki2005-26"><a href="#cite_ref-Matsuzaki2005_26-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMatsuzakiRashelUchiyama2005" class="citation journal cs1">Matsuzaki S, Rashel M, Uchiyama J, et al. (October 2005). "Bacteriophage therapy: a revitalized therapy against bacterial infectious diseases". J. Infect. Chemother. 11 (5): 211–9. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10156-005-0408-9">10.1007/s10156-005-0408-9</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16258815">16258815</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8107934">8107934</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-OSU_News-28"><a href="#cite_ref-OSU_News_28-0">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oregonstate.edu/ua/ncs/archives/2013/oct/beyond-antibiotics-%E2%80%9Cppmos%E2%80%9D-offer-new-approach-bacterial-infection">"Beyond antibiotics: PPMOs offer new approach to bacterial infection"</a>. 2013-10-15. Retrieved October 15, 2013.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-FDA_PR_20230523-29"><a href="#cite_ref-FDA_PR_20230523_29-0">^</a> <cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230523231227/https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-treatment-pneumonia-caused-certain-difficult-treat-bacteria">"FDA Approves New Treatment for Pneumonia Caused by Certain Difficult-to-Treat Bacteria"</a>. U.S. Food and Drug Administration (Press release). 24 May 2023. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-treatment-pneumonia-caused-certain-difficult-treat-bacteria">the original</a> on May 23, 2023. Retrieved 24 May 2023.</cite> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.

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<cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn3228-air-ionizers-wipe-out-hospital-infections.htm">"Air ionizers wipe out hospital infections"</a>. The New Scientist. Retrieved 2006-08-30.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Palmen-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Palmen_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Palmen_31-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFPalmenVosmanBuijsmanBreek1993" class="citation journal cs1">Palmen R, Vosman B, Buijsman P, Breek CK, Hellingwerf KJ (February 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-139-2-295">"Physiological characterization of natural transformation in Acinetobacter calcoaceticus"</a>. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139 (2): 295–305. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2F00221287-139-2-295">10.1099/00221287-139-2-295</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8436948">8436948</a>.</cite>

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</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFK.J._TownerE._Bergogne-BérézinC.A._Fewson1991" class="citation book cs1">K.J. Towner; E. Bergogne-Bérézin; C.A. Fewson (30 June 1991). The Biology of Acinetobacter: Taxonomy, Clinical Importance, Molecular Biology, Physiology, Industrial Relevance (F.E.M.S. Symposium Series). Springer. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0306439026</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDongyou_Liu2011" class="citation book cs1">Dongyou Liu (13 April 2011). Molecular Detection of Human Bacterial Pathogens (1 ed.). Crc Pr Inc. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1439812389</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDongyou_Liu2013" class="citation book cs1">Dongyou Liu (1 March 2013). Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases: Microbiological Aspects and Risks (2 ed.). Academic Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0124158467</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNarciso-Da-RochaVaz-MoreiraSvensson-StadlerMoore2012" class="citation journal cs1">Narciso-Da-Rocha, C.; Vaz-Moreira, I.; Svensson-Stadler, L.; Moore, E. R. B.; Manaia, C. L. M. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/225273045">"Diversity and antibiotic resistance of Acinetobacter spp. in water from the source to the tap"</a>. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 97 (1): 329–340. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00253-012-4190-1">10.1007/s00253-012-4190-1</a>. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10400.14%2F10027">10400.14/10027</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22669636">22669636</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:323861">323861</a>.</cite></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a> has information related to <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Acinetobacter" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Special:Search/Acinetobacter">Acinetobacter</a>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060917172146/http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/News/military.html">Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090211034210/http://cmr.jcvi.org/tigr-scripts/CMR/GenomePage.cgi?org=ntas01">Acinetobacter sp. ADP1 Genome Page</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140722055321/http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/cycsim/">CycSim: metabolic model of Acinetobacter baylyi adp1</a> (in English)</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q310457" class="extiw external" title="wikidata:Q310457">Q310457</a></li>

<li><a href="Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Acinetobacter" class="extiw external" title="wikispecies:Acinetobacter">Acinetobacter</a></li>

<li><a href="EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1ACING">1ACING</a></li>

<li><a href="INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/356487">356487</a></li>

<li><a href="Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1029903">1029903</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Prokaryotic_names_with_Standing_in_Nomenclature" title="List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature">LPSN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bacterio.net/acinetobacter.html">acinetobacter.html</a></li>

<li>SeqCode Registry: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://seqco.de/i:1116">1116</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=570612">570612</a></li></ul>

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